Definition of Terms:
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The Primacy of Rome: Rooted in the Apostle Peter
The doctrine of the Primacy of Rome is historically and theologically grounded in the belief that the Bishop of Rome holds a unique role of authority and service within the universal Church. This concept does not primarily concern the city of Rome as such, but rather the Petrine office—Peter’s role as the chief of the apostles—and the continuity of that office in the Roman episcopate. According to early Christian understanding, Peter exercised pastoral leadership among the apostles and ultimately died in Rome, where he was regarded as the first bishop of the Roman Church.¹
While Peter also ministered in Jerusalem and Antioch (cf. Gal. 2:11), the apostolic succession of his episcopacy was not attached to these cities, as he continued his mission beyond them. Only Rome preserved the enduring legacy of Peter’s pastoral office, which came to be known as the “Chair of Peter” (cathedra Petri), symbolizing his teaching authority and primacy.
Scriptural Foundations and Old Testament Typology
Peter’s primacy is most explicitly grounded in the words of Jesus found in Matthew 16:18–19:
“You are Peter, and on this rock I will build my Church… I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven…”²
This bestowal of the keys and the power to bind and loose echoes the Old Testament office of the Royal Steward (al ha-bayit) in the Davidic Kingdom, as described in Isaiah 22:20–22, where Eliakim is given “the key of the house of David.” The parallel between Eliakim’s office and Peter’s role was widely noted by early commentators, who interpreted this as Christ establishing Peter as His vicar on earth.³
Jesus further singles out Peter at key moments: He prays especially for Peter’s faith (Luke 22:32), charges him to strengthen his brethren, and later commissions him to “feed my sheep” (John 21:15–17), entrusting him with pastoral care over the entire flock.
The Primacy of Peter in the Apostolic Church
After Christ’s ascension, Peter emerges in Acts as the clear leader of the apostolic community:
- He initiates the replacement of Judas (Acts 1:15–26).
- He preaches the first sermon at Pentecost (Acts 2:14–41).
- He performs the first apostolic miracle (Acts 3:1–10).
- He issues disciplinary judgments (Acts 5:1–11).
- He speaks on behalf of the Church at the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15:7–11).
Paul acknowledges Peter’s foundational role in 1 Corinthians 15:5, noting that the risen Christ “appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve.” These early episodes highlight Peter’s pastoral and doctrinal leadership, which would later be associated with the Church of Rome.
The Roman Primacy in the Apostolic Fathers
The earliest extra-biblical evidence for the special status of the Roman Church comes from Clement of Rome, writing around A.D. 96 to the Church of Corinth. In his First Epistle to the Corinthians, Clement intervenes authoritatively to resolve a local dispute, despite the distance from Rome, and appeals not to local custom but to apostolic tradition and unity:
“If any disobey the things which have been said by Him through us, let them know that they will entangle themselves in transgression and no small danger.”⁴
Clement’s tone and content suggest that the Roman Church saw itself as possessing a moral and doctrinal authority rooted in apostolic succession—likely from Peter and Paul.
Ignatius of Antioch, en route to martyrdom around 107, writes to the Roman Church with unique deference. Unlike his letters to other churches, he praises Rome not for its faith or charity alone, but for its “presidency in love”, a phrase interpreted by many scholars as a reference to the Church’s preeminent position.⁵
The Development of Roman Authority in the Pre-Nicene and Post-Nicene Periods
By the mid-3rd century, the Bishop of Rome was increasingly viewed as the point of reference in matters of faith and Church discipline. Cyprian of Carthage (d. 258) refers to Rome as the “Chair of Peter” and the “principal Church” with which all Christians must remain in communion.⁶ While Cyprian would later have disputes with Pope Stephen I over rebaptism, his earlier writings affirm Rome’s unique role in maintaining Church unity.
The term cathedra Petri (Chair of Peter), derived from the Greek kathédra, was used to signify the apostolic authority transmitted to bishops, especially in Rome. The idea is also reflected in Matthew 23:2, where Jesus speaks of the Pharisees sitting in “Moses’ seat,” establishing a precedent for the concept of a teaching chair of authority.⁷
In the 4th century, Jerome sought guidance from Pope Damasus I on a disputed claim to the Antiochene patriarchate, stating:
“I follow no one as leader except Christ alone, and therefore I desire to remain in communion with your Blessedness, that is, with the Chair of Peter. I know that the Church is founded upon this Rock.”⁸
Conciliar Recognition and the Emergence of the Pentarchy
The First Council of Nicaea (325) recognized the long-standing importance of the See of Rome. While not defining papal supremacy, Canon 6 notes the precedence of Alexandria and Antioch “since ancient custom” in relation to Rome’s primacy.⁹
The Council of Chalcedon (451) formally acknowledged the “primacy of honor” held by Rome, even as it elevated Constantinople (the “New Rome”) to second place due to its imperial status. The resulting system of five patriarchates—Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem—became known as the Pentarchy.¹⁰
Despite this, only Rome claimed a universal primacy rooted not in imperial privilege, but in apostolic succession from Peter. As Pope Leo I stated at Chalcedon:
“The care of the universal Church should converge toward Peter’s one seat, and nothing anywhere should be separated from its Head.”¹¹
Eastern and Syriac Acknowledgments of Roman Primacy
Even Eastern and Syriac Fathers affirmed, to varying degrees, the special authority of the Roman See:
- John Chrysostom (c. 349–407) called Peter the “leader of the choir of Apostles” and the “mouthpiece of the disciples.”¹²
- Cyril of Alexandria (c. 376–444) referred to Peter as the “chief of the Apostles.”
- Maximus the Confessor (d. 662) asserted:
“All the ends of the inhabited world… look to the great Church of the Romans… for it has received universal and supreme dominion, authority, and the power of binding and loosing from the Incarnate Word Himself.”¹³ - Syriac writers like Ephrem the Syrian and Theodore Abu Qurrah also showed reverence for the Roman See, despite being outside the Roman Empire’s jurisdiction.¹⁴
This wide recognition of Roman primacy—even across linguistic, political, and cultural boundaries—testifies to the early and enduring belief in the special role of the See of Peter.
Conclusion
The primacy of the Roman Church was not an arbitrary development rooted in political influence, but a theological conviction grounded in the person of Peter and his continuing office in Rome. From the New Testament foundations to the writings of the Church Fathers and ecumenical councils, the Bishop of Rome was regarded as holding a unique role in preserving doctrinal unity and apostolic authority. While the Pentarchy reflected the broader structure of ecclesiastical governance in the early Church, only Rome was universally acknowledged as the Petrine See, and thus held a position of doctrinal leadership unmatched by the other patriarchates.
Footnotes
- Eusebius of Caesarea, Ecclesiastical History 2.25.8.
- Matt. 16:18–19, ESV.
- Cf. Scott Hahn, Catholic Bible Dictionary (Doubleday, 2009), p. 614.
- 1 Clement 59–63, in The Apostolic Fathers, ed. Bart D. Ehrman (Loeb Classical Library, 2003).
- Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Romans, Prologue.
- Cyprian, Epistle 59 (To Cornelius); cf. De Unit. Ecclesiae, 4–5.
- Tertullian, De Praescriptione Haereticorum 36.
- Jerome, Letter 15 to Damasus (A.D. 376).
- Council of Nicaea I, Canon 6.
- Council of Chalcedon, Canon 28.
- Pope Leo I, Letter to the Council of Chalcedon (Epistle 14.11).
- John Chrysostom, Homilies on the Gospel of Matthew, Homily 54.
- Maximus the Confessor, Opuscula Theologica et Polemica, Disputatio cum Pyrrho.
- See Sidney Griffith, The Church in the Shadow of the Mosque (Princeton, 2008), pp. 41–48.
Bible Verses:
Matthew 16:16-19:
”Blessed are you, Simon Bar-Jonah. For flesh and blood has not revealed this to you, but my Father who is in heaven. And I tell you, you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven”
Church Father Quotes:
“The Shepherd” of Hermas (ca. 90 A.D.)
“Therefore shall you write two little books and send one to Clement [Bishop of Rome] and one to Grapte. Clement shall then send it to the cities abroad, because that is his duty, and Grapte shall instruct the widows and the orphans. But you shall read it in this city along with the presbyters who are in charge of the Church” (Vision 2:4:3 [circa A.D. 140]).
Pope Clement I of Rome (martyred 96 A.D.)
“The Church of God which sojourns in Rome to the Church of God which sojourns in Corinth, to those who are called and sanctified by the will of God through our Lord Jesus Christ. Grace and peace from almighty God be multiplied unto you through Jesus Christ. Owing to the sudden and repeated calamities and misfortunes which have befallen us, we must acknowledge that we have been somewhat tardy in turning our attention to the matters in dispute among you, beloved” (Epistle to the Corinthians, circa A.D. 80]).
“Accept our counsel and you will have nothing to regret. . . . If anyone disobeys the things which have been said by him [Jesus] through us, let them know that they will involve themselves in no small danger. We, however, shall be innocent of this sin and will pray with entreaty and supplication that the Creator of all may keep unharmed the number of his elect.” (ibid. 58:2, 59:1).
“You will afford us joy and gladness if, being obedient to the things which we have written through the Holy Spirit, you will root out the wicked passion of jealousy, in accord with the plea for peace and concord which we have made in this letter” (ibid. 63:2).
Ignatius of Antioch (35-107 A.D.)
“Ignatius, also called Theophorus, to the Church that has found mercy in the greatness of the Most High Father and in Jesus Christ, his only son;. to the Church wich also holds the presidency in the place of the country of the Romans, worthy of God, worthy of honor, worthy of blessing, worthy of praise, worthy of success, worthy of sanctification, and because you hold the presidency of love, named after Christ and named after the Father; here therefore do I salute in the name of Jesus Christ, the Son of the Father.” –Letter to the Romans: Intro (written 107 A.D.)
“You [the See of Rome] have envied no one, but others have you taught. I desire only that what you have enjoined in your instructions may remain in force” (Epistle to the Romans 3:1 [A.D. 110]).
Dionysius of Corinth (ca 171 A.D.)
“For from the beginning it has been your custom to do good to all the brethren in various ways and to send contributions to all the churches in every city. . . Thus custom your blessed Bishop Soter has not only preserved, but is augmenting, by furnishing an abundance of supplies to the saints and by urging with consoling words, as a loving father his children, the brethren who are journeying” (Epistle to Soter [Bishop of Rome] 4:23:9 [inter AD. 166-174]).
“Today we have observed the Lord’s holy day, in which we have read your letter [in church]. Whenever we do read it, we shall be able to profit thereby, as also we do when we read the earlier letter written to us by Clement” (ibid. 4:23:11).
Irenaeus of Lyons (130-202 A.D.)
“The blessed apostles [Peter and Paul], having founded and built up the church [of Rome], they handed over the office of the episcopate to Linus. Paul makes mention of this Linus in the epistle to Timothy [2 Tim. 4:21]. To him succeeded Anencletus, and after him, in the third place from the apostles, Clement was chosen for the episcopate. He had seen the blessed apostles and was acquainted with them. It might be said that he still heard the echoes of the preaching of the apostles and had their traditions before his eyes. And not only he, for there were many still remaining who had been instructed by the apostles. In the time of Clement, no small dissension having arisen among the brethren in Corinth, the Church in Rome sent a very strong letter to the Corinthians, exhorting them to peace and renewing their faith. . . To this Clement, Evaristus succeeded. . . and now, in the twelfth place after the apostles, the lot of the episcopate [of Rome] has fallen to Eleutherus. In this order, and by the teaching of the apostles handed down in the Church, the preaching of the truth has come down to us” (Against Heresies 3:3:3 [inter AD. 180-190]).
“But since it would be too long to enumerate in such a volume as this the succession of all the churches, we shall confound all those who, in whatever manner, whether through self-satisfaction or vainglory, or through blindness and wicked opinion, assemble other than where it is proper, by pointing out here the successions of the bishops qf the greatest and most ancient church known to all, founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul, that church which has the tradition and the faith which comes down to us after having been announced to men by the apostles. With that church, because of its superior origin, all the churches must agree, that is, all the faithful in the whole world, and it is in her that the faithful everywhere have maintained the apostolic tradition” (ibid. 3:3:2).
Tertullian of Carthage (155-220 A.D.)
“Where was the heretic Marcion, that shipmaster of Pontus and zealous student of Stoicism? Where was Valentinus, the disciple of Platonism? For it is evident that those men lived not so long ago -in the reign of Antonius for the most part- and that they at first were believers in the doctrine of the Catholic Church, in the church of Rome under the episcopate of the blessed Pope Eleutherius, until on account of their ever restless curiosity, with which they even infected the brethren, and they were at once expelled.” –Demurrer Against the Heretics 30
Cyprian of Carthage (200-258 A.D.)
“With a false bishop appointed for themselves by heretics, they dare even to set sail and carry letters from schismatics and b.asphemers to the Chair of Peter and to the principal church [at Rome], in which sacerdotal unity has its source” (Epistle to Cornelius [Bishop of Rome] 59:14 [A.D. 252]).
Optatus of Milevis (320-385 A.D.)
“In the city of Rome the episcopal chair was given first to Peter, the chair in which Peter sat, the same who was head – that is why he is also called Cephas – of all the apostles, the one chair in which unity is maintained by all. Neither do the apostles proceed individually on their own, and anyone who would [presume to] set up another chair in opposition to that single chair would, by that very fact, be a schismatic and a sinner. . . .Recall, then, the origins of your chair, those of you who wish to claim for yourselves the title of holy Church” (The Schism of the Donatists 2:2 [circa A.D. 367]).
Pope Innocent I (reign 401-417 A.D.)
“If cases of greater importance are to be heard, they are, as the synod decrees and as happy custom requires, after episcopal judgment, to be referred to the Apostolic See” (Epistle to Victricius[Bishop of Rouen] 2:3:6 [A.D. 404]).
Pope Zosimus (Died 418 A.D.)
“Although the tradition of the Fathers has attributed such great authority to the Apostolic See that no one would dare to disagree wholly with its judgment, and it has always preserved this [judgment] by canons and rules, and current ecclesiastical discipline up to this time by its laws pays the reverence which is due to the name of Peter, from whom it has itself descended …; since therefore Peter the head is of such great authority and he has confirmed the subsequent endeavors of all our ancestors, so that the Roman Church is fortified. . . by human as well as by divine laws, and it does not escape you that we rule its place and also hold power of the name itself, nevertheless you know, dearest brethren, and as priests you ought to know, although we have such great authority that no one can dare to retract from our decision, yet we have done nothing which we have not voluntarily referred to your notice by letters . . . not because we did not know what ought to be done, or would do anything which by going against the advantage of the Church, would be displeasing.” –Epistle (12) “Quamvis Patrum traditio” to the African bishops, March 21, 418. Patrologia Latina 20. 676; Denzinger, H., & Rahner, K. (Eds.). (1954). The sources of Catholic dogma. (R. J. Deferrari, Trans.) (p. 47). St. Louis, MO: B. Herder Book Co.)
Augustine of Hippo (354-430 A.D.)
“If the very order of episcopal succession is to be considered, how much more surely, truly, and safely do we number them [the bishops of Rome] from Peter himself, to whom, as to one representing the whole Church, the Lord said, ‘Upon this rock I will build my Church, and the gates of hell shall not conquer it.’ Peter was succeeded by Linus, Linus by Clement . . . In this order of succession a Donatist bishop is not to be found” (Epistle to Generosus 53:1:2 [A.D. 400]).
“[On this matter of the Pelagians] two councils have already been sent to the Apostolic See [the Bishop of Rome], and from there rescripts too have come. The matter is at an end; would that the error too might be at an end!” (Sermons 131:10 [inter A.D. 391-430]).
Peter Chrysologus (380-450 A.D.)
“We exhort you in every respect, honorable brother, to heed obediently what has been written by the most blessed Pope of the city of Rome, for blessed Peter, who lives and presides in his own see, provides the truth of the faith to those who seek it. For we, by reason of our pursuit of peace and faith, cannot try these cases on the faith without the consent of the Bishop of the city of Rome” (Epistle to Eutyches 25:2 [A.D. 449]).
Theodoret of Cyr (393-458 A.D.)
“I therefore beseech your holiness to persuade the most holy and blessed bishop (Pope Leo) to use his Apostolic power, and to order me to hasten to your Council. For that most holy throne (Rome) has the sovereignty over the churches throughout the universe on many grounds.” –Epistle 116 to Presbyter Renatus, p. 1197. Translated by Blomfield Jackson. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.(Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co.,1892.)
“It pertains to you (Pope Leo) to hold the primacy in all things, for your throne is adorned with many prerogatives.” –Letter 113 to Pope Leo, Bishop of Rome. Translated by Blomfield Jackson. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.(Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co.,1892.)
“If Paul, the herald of the truth, the trumpet of the Holy Spirit, hastened to the great Peter, to convey from him the solution to those in Antioch, who were at issue about living under the law, how much more do we, poor and humble, run to the Apostolic Throne (Rome) to receive from you (Pope Leo) healing for wounds of the the Churches. For it pertains to you to have primacy in all things; for your throne is adorned with many prerogatives.” –Letter 113 to Pope Leo, Bishop of Rome. Translated by Blomfield Jackson. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.(Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co.,1892.)
“For that all holy throne has the office of heading the Churches of the whole world, for many reasons; and, above all others, because it has remained free of the communion of heretical taint, and no one holding heterodox sentiments ever sat in it, but it has preserved the Apostolic grace unsullied.” –Epistle 116 to Presbyter Renatus, p. 1197. Translated by Blomfield Jackson. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 3. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace.(Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co.,1892.)
Pope Hormisdas (Died 523 A.D.)
“Following, as we have said before, the Apostolic See in all things and proclaiming all its decisions, we endorse and approve all the letters which Pope St Leo wrote concerning the Christian religion. And so I hope I may deserve to be associated with you in the one communion which the Apostolic See proclaims, in which the whole, true, and perfect security of the Christian religion resides. I promise that from now on those who are separated from the communion of the Catholic Church, that is, who are not in agreement with the Apostolic See, will not have their names read during the sacred mysteries.” -“Libellus professionis fidei” added to the epistle “Inter ea quae” to the bishops of Spain, April 2, 518; Denzinger, H., & Rahner, K. (Eds.). (1954). The sources of Catholic dogma. (R. J. Deferrari, Trans.) (p. 73). St. Louis, MO: B. Herder Book Co.
Columbanus of Ireland (543-615 A.D.)
“We Irish, though dwelling at the far ends of the earth, are all disciples of Saint Peter and Saint Paul … we are bound to the Chair of Peter, and although Rome is great and renowned, through that Chair alone is she looked on as great and illustrious among us … On account of the two Apostles of Christ, you are almost celestial, and Rome is the head of the whole world, and of the Churches.” –-Letter to Pope Boniface IV on the controversy over the Three Chapters (Written ca. 614 A.D.) Edmonds, Columba (1908). “St. Columbanus”. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Sophronius of Jerusalem (560-638 A.D.)
“I acknowledge the decisions of the Apostolic See, the sacred and venerable Chair of Peter, as final and binding on all matters of faith. I recognize its decisions as the voice of Peter himself, and I submit to them with all the strength of my soul. Let the whole world know that the faith of the Apostolic See is the only true and orthodox faith, and that no one has the right to teach otherwise. To this sacred See, we entrust all matters of doctrine, for it is the foundation of the Church and the source of all true teaching.” –Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum Collectio, Vol. 8, p. 893 (Lateran Council Acts)
“We, the bishops of the East, are troubled by the heretical doctrines that are spreading, and we turn to the most holy and blessed Apostolic See in Rome, where the foundations of the orthodox doctrine rest. We beseech your wisdom and authority to settle this matter, for no one else possesses the divine guidance to bring an end to this error. It is to the Chair of Peter that we look for direction and resolution, and we trust that your apostolic and divine wisdom will lead us into the light of the true faith.” –Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum Collectio, Vol. 8, p. 893 (Lateran Council Acts)
“The authority of the Chair of Peter is not confined to the city of Rome but extends throughout the entire world, for it is through this Chair that the succession of the apostles has been preserved. Just as Peter was entrusted with the keys of the Kingdom of Heaven, so too does his successor bear this same responsibility. Therefore, all Christians must recognize and honor the Pope as the successor of Peter, the guardian of the faith, and the supreme teacher of all truth.” –Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum Collectio, Vol. 8, p. 893 (Lateran Council Acts)
“Transverse quickly all the world from one end to the other until you come to the Apostolic See (Rome), where are the foundations of the orthodox doctrine. Make clearly known to the most holy personages of that throne the questions agitated among us. Cease not to pray and to beg them until their apostolic and Divine wisdom shall have pronounced the victorious judgement and destroyed from the foundation …the new heresy.” –Sophronius, [quoted by Bishop Stephen of Dora to Pope Martin I at the Lateran Council], Mansi, Giovanni Domenico (ed.), Sacrorum Conciliorum Collectio, Vol. 8, Florence: A. Zatta, 1759–1798.
Maximus the Confessor (580-662 A.D.)
“If the Roman See recognizes Pyrrhus to be not only a reprobate but a heretic, it is certainly plain that everyone who rejects those who rejected Pyrrhus, rejects the See of Rome itself -that is, he rejects the Catholic Church. I need hardly add that he excommunicates himself as well, if indeed he is in communion with the Roman See and the Church of God.” –Disputations with Pyrrhus. Farrell, Joseph P., trans. South Canaan, PA: St. Tikhon’s Seminary Press, 1990.
“Let him first hasten to satisfy the See of Rome… It is futile to try and persuade one like me without instead trying to satisfy and implore the blessed Pope of the holy Church of Rome. For that is the Apostolic See, which has received from the Incarnate Son of God Himself, universal and supreme dominion, authority, and the power of binding and loosing over all the holy churches. This is confirmed by all holy synods, according to the holy canons in the whole world.” –Disputations with Pyrrhus. Farrell, Joseph P., trans. South Canaan, PA: St. Tikhon’s Seminary Press, 1990.
“It is not right that one who has been condemned and cast out by the Apostolic See of Rome for his wrong opinions should be named with any kind of honor, until he is received by her, having returned to her -no, to the Lord- by a pious confession and orthodox faith.” –Disputations with Pyrrhus. Farrell, Joseph P., trans. South Canaan, PA: St. Tikhon’s Seminary Press, 1990.
“Anasatios ordered me to transcribe these things and to make them known to you most holy people, in order that, when you have found out about the trial from these, you might all bring a common prayer to the Lord on behalf of our common mother, that is the Catholic church, and on behalf of us your unworthy servants, for strengthening everyone and us also, persevering with you in it, according to the orthodox faith rightly preached in it by the holy fathers. For there is great fear in the whole world because this [Church] endures persecution by everyone at the same time, unless He [God] offers aid by his customary grace, He who always comes to aid, leaving the seed of piety at least in older Rome, confirming His promise he made to the prince of the Apostles, which does not deceive us.” -Letter of Maximos to Anastasius his disciple – CPG 7701, Clauis Patrum Graecorum, vols. 1-5, Corpus Christainorum. Gerhard, M.
“The extremities of the earth, and everyone in every part of it who purely and rightly confess the Lord, look directly towards the Most Holy Roman Church and her confession and faith, as to a sun of unfailing light awaiting from her the brilliant radiance of the sacred dogmas of our Fathers, according to that which the inspired and holy Councils have stainlessly and piously decreed. For, from the descent of the Incarnate Word amongst us, all the churches in every part of the world have held the greatest Church alone to be their base and foundation, seeing that, according to the promise of Christ Our Savior, the gates of hell will never prevail against her, that she has the keys of the orthodox confession and right faith in Him, that she opens the true and exclusive religion to such men as approach with piety, and she shuts up and locks every heretical mouth which speaks against the Most High.” -Maximus, Opuscula theologica et polemica, Migne, Patr. Graec. vol. 90
“How much more in the case of the clergy and Church of the Romans, which from old until now presides over all the churches which are under the sun? Having surely received this canonically, as well as from councils and the apostles, as from the princes of the latter (Peter and Paul), and being numbered in their company, she is subject to no writings or issues in synodical documents, on account of the eminence of her pontificate …..even as in all these things all are equally subject to her (the Church of Rome) according to sacerodotal law. And so when, without fear, but with all holy and becoming confidence, those ministers (the popes) are of the truly firm and immovable rock, that is of the most great and Apostolic Church of Rome.” -Maximus, in J.B. Mansi, ed. Amplissima Collectio Conciliorum, vol. 10
Theodore Abū Qurrah (750-825 A.D.)
“As for Christ’s words, ‘I have prayed for you, that you not lose your faith; but you, have compassion on your brethren, at that time, and strengthen them’, we do not think that he meant Saint Peter himself. Rather, he meant nothing more than the holders of the seat of Saint Peter, that is, Rome. Just as when he said to the apostles, ‘I am with you always, until the end of the age’, he did not mean just the apostles themselves, but also those who would be in charge of their seats and their flocks; in the same way, when he spoke his last words to Saint Peter, ‘Have compassion, at that time, and strengthen your brethren; and your faith will not be lost’, he meant by this nothing other than the holders of his seat.” -On the Councils by Theodore Abu Qurrah, Bishop of Haran, Syria. John C. Lamoreaux, translator. (Provo: Brigham Young University Press, 2005), pp. 68-69; 128.
“Indeed, everyone knows that the heretics attacked the Church only after the death of the Apostles – Paul of Samosata, Arius, Macedonius, Eunomius, Sabelllius, Apollinaris, Origen, and others. If he meant by these words in the Gospel only Saint Peter, the Church would have been deprived of comfort and would have had no one to deliver her from those heretics, whose heresies are truly ‘the gates of hell’, which Christ said would not overcome the Church. Accordingly, there is no doubt that he meant by these words nothing other than the holders of the seat of Saint Peter, who have continually strengthened their brethren and will not cease to do so as long as this present age lasts.” -On the Councils by Theodore Abu Qurrah, Bishop of Haran, Syria. John C. Lamoreaux, translator. (Provo: Brigham Young University Press, 2005), pp. 68-69; 128.
Non-Catholic Quotes:
John Henry Newman, Anglican Bishop who converted to Catholicism;
[…] developments of Christianity are proved to have been in the contemplation of its Divine Author, by an argument parallel to that by which we infer intelligence in the system of the physical world. In whatever sense the need and its supply are a proof of design in the visible creation, in the same do the gaps, if the word may be used, which occur in the structure of the original creed of the Church, make it probable that those developments, which grow out of the truths which lie around them, were intended to fill them up.” Newman 1888, p. 63, quoted in Misner (1976, p. 72)
Alexander Schmemann, Orthodox priest & theologian;
It is impossible to deny that, even before the appearance of local primacies, the Church from the first days of her existence possessed an ecumenical center of unity and agreement. In the apostolic and Judeo-Christian period, it was the Church of Jerusalem, and later the Church of Rome – presiding in agape, according to St. Ignatius of Antioch. This formula, and the definition of the universal primacy contained in it, have been aptly analyzed by Fr Afanassieff and we need not repeat his argument here. Neither can we quote here all testimonies of the fathers and the councils unanimously acknowledging Rome as the senior church and the center of ecumenical agreement. It is only for the sake of biased polemics that one can ignore these testimonies, their consensus and significance.” –Schmemann, Alexander. “The idea of primacy in Orthodox ecclesiology”. In Meyendorff (1995). Meyendorff, John, ed. (1995) [1963]. The primacy of Peter: essays in ecclesiology and the early church (reprinted and rev. ed.). Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press.
Non-Catholic academic historians James T. Shotwell and Louise Ropes Loomis;
“Unquestionably, the Roman church very early developed something like a sense of obligation to the oppressed all over Christendom. … Consequently, there was but one focus of authority. By the year 252, there seem to have been one hundred bishops in central and southern Italy but outside Rome there was nothing to set one bishop above another. All were on a level together, citizens of Italy, accustomed to look to Rome for direction in every detail of public life. The Roman bishop had the right not only to ordain but even, on occasion, to select bishops for Italian churches. … To Christians of the Occident, the Roman church was the sole, direct link with the age of the New Testament and its bishop was the one prelate in their part of the world in whose voice they discerned echoes of the apostles’ speech. The Roman bishop spoke always as the guardian of an authoritative tradition, second to none. Even when the eastern churches insisted that their traditions were older and quite as sacred, if not more so, the voice in the West, unaccustomed to rivalry at home, spoke on regardless of protest or denunciation at a distance.” -Shotwell, James T.; Loomis, Louise Ropes (1927). The See of Peter. Records of civilization, sources and studies. New York: Columbia University Press. p 217-220