Definition of Terms:
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Early Christian Understanding of Peter as “the Rock”
In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus says to Simon: “You are Peter, and on this rock I will build my Church” (Matt. 16:18). This statement has often been a watershed for theological discussion regarding the nature of Church authority, Petrine primacy, and succession. But long before these questions became flashpoints between later confessions, the early Church heard these words as part of its living memory, scriptural reflection, and ecclesial formation.
The Language of Matthew 16:18 in Context:
“Σὺ εἶ Πέτρος, καὶ ἐπὶ ταύτῃ τῇ πέτρᾳ οἰκοδομήσω μου τὴν ἐκκλησίαν”
“You are Peter [Petros], and on this rock [petra] I will build my Church.”
While the Greek shows a variation between Petros (masculine) and petra (feminine), this distinction arises from grammatical necessity, not from theological intent. The original Aramaic behind Jesus’ statement would likely have read: “You are Kepha, and on this kepha I will build my Church,” using the same word for both “Peter” and “rock.” The pun is far clearer in Aramaic than in Greek, which supports the view that Peter himself is the referent. D.A. Carson, an evangelical scholar, explains:
“The most natural reading of the verse is that Peter is the rock on which Jesus builds the church. The pun would be lost if it were otherwise… There is little doubt that the rock is Peter.”[1]
R.T. France, writing from an Anglican perspective, echoes this:
“It is only due to the accident of gender in Greek that we have to distinguish between Petros and petra—the wordplay is unmistakable and clearly refers to Peter himself.”[2]
This early linguistic context, especially when heard in Aramaic, would have led the first Christian communities to understand Peter himself as the rock, not merely his faith or confession.
The Significance of a Name Change
The tradition of changing names in the Hebrew Scriptures is associated with divine commissioning. Abram becomes Abraham, Jacob becomes Israel. These were not cosmetic alterations, but theological signals: a new identity for a new role in God’s redemptive plan.
Jesus’ renaming of Simon to “Peter” (Kepha, or “Rock”) thus participates in this biblical pattern. John’s Gospel captures this moment: “You shall be called Cephas (which is translated Peter)” (John 1:42).
Brant Pitre, a historical theologian, summarizes the pattern:
“When God changes someone’s name, it always denotes a change in role in salvation history. That Jesus gives Simon a new name, Peter, aligns him with the pattern of the great patriarchs.”[3]
To early Christians familiar with the Hebrew Scriptures, this act would not have been incidental. It placed Peter within the tradition of patriarchal authority and divine mission.
The Keys of the Kingdom: Echoes of Isaiah 22
Following the declaration in Matthew 16:18, Jesus grants Peter “the keys of the kingdom of heaven” and the authority to “bind and loose” (Matt. 16:19). This language alludes strongly to Isaiah 22:22, where the steward Eliakim is given the key of the House of David:
“I will place on his shoulder the key of the house of David; he shall open, and none shall shut; and he shall shut, and none shall open.”
In Jewish tradition, keys symbolized governance, succession, and stewardship. Eliakim was not king, but he held royal authority on behalf of the king. By drawing on this imagery, Jesus situates Peter not as a rival to Christ, but as His chief steward in the household of the restored Davidic kingdom.
Early Christians would have heard in this passage not merely symbolic language, but a concrete indication of entrusted authority.
Peter in the New Testament Church
Though the early Church recognized the collegial authority of all apostles, the New Testament offers repeated hints that Peter held a preeminent role:
In Acts 2, Peter preaches the first sermon at Pentecost.
In Acts 10, he is the first apostle to baptize Gentiles after receiving a vision from God.
In Galatians 1:18, Paul visits Peter (Cephas) and stays with him for fifteen days.
In 1 Corinthians 15:5, Paul lists Peter first among those to whom the risen Christ appeared.
In Galatians 2:9, Peter is named first among the Church’s “pillars.”
Though Paul famously rebukes Peter in Galatians 2:11, this exchange presupposes Peter’s prominence. In the honor-based world of ancient Christianity, one does not confront a minor figure publicly unless his leadership affects the entire community.
Thus, while Peter was not a monarchial figure, the early Christian writings portray him as a principal leader—a foundation for unity and guidance in the emerging Church.
The Apostolic Fathers
The first post-apostolic writers preserved and expanded this understanding of Peter.
Ignatius of Antioch (c. 110 AD)
In his Letter to the Romans, Ignatius describes the Roman Church as the one that “presides in love.” While not naming Peter, this language is best understood in light of the apostolic legacy of Peter and Paul in Rome.
Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 180 AD)
Writing against heresies, Irenaeus invokes the Church of Rome as the touchstone of authentic doctrine:
“…the greatest and most ancient Church known to all, founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul… with which Church, every Church must agree.” – Against Heresies 3.3.2[4]
Here, Peter is not just one apostle among many. His memory, and that of his Roman successors, becomes a measuring rod for orthodoxy.
Pre-Nicene Fathers
Tertullian (c. 200 AD)
“Was anything withheld from Peter, who is called ‘the rock on which the Church should be built,’ who also obtained the keys of the kingdom of heaven?” – On Modesty 21[5]
Tertullian, even after his departure from the Church, preserved the traditional interpretation of Peter as the rock.
Origen (c. 250 AD)
“See what is said by the Lord to Peter, that great foundation of the Church, and most solid rock, upon which Christ founded the Church.” – Commentary on Matthew 12.10[6]
Origen is often nuanced, applying the term “rock” spiritually to others as well, but he affirms Peter’s unique role in the founding of the Church.
Cyprian of Carthage (c. 250 AD)
“Although He gives to all the apostles an equal power, yet He founded a single Chair… established by His authority the source and reason of unity.” – On the Unity of the Church 4[7]
Cyprian’s emphasis on unity leads him to interpret Peter’s primacy as a sign of visible ecclesial cohesion, even while upholding episcopal equality.
Ecclesial Memory in the Early Centuries
The early Church’s historical memory is clear: Peter was martyred in Rome, where he helped establish the Church alongside Paul. His successors in the Roman episcopate were viewed not as autonomous bishops but as heirs to an apostolic authority rooted in Peter’s commission.
By the time of the Council of Nicaea (325 AD), the See of Rome had already acquired a position of honor—not simply due to imperial geography, but because of its connection to Peter.
A Historical Consensus Emerges
Modern biblical scholarship, across denominational lines, has largely affirmed what early Christians assumed:
Oscar Cullmann (Lutheran):
“There can be no doubt that the words refer to Peter himself… He is the rock.”[8]
Raymond E. Brown (Catholic, historical-critical):
“Most exegetes, including a growing number of Protestants, now recognize that the ‘rock’ in Matthew 16:18 is Peter himself.”[9]
Craig S. Keener (Evangelical):
“The Greek wordplay and the Aramaic behind it point to Peter himself as the rock.”[10]
D.A. Carson (Evangelical):
“The evidence is very strong that Peter himself is ‘this rock,’ and that such was the understanding of the earliest readers of Matthew.”[1]
While theologians may differ on the implications of this passage for modern ecclesiology, as a historical fact, the early Church understood Peter to be the rock.
Conclusion
From the grammar of the Greek to the theological symbolism of name changes, from the authority of the keys to the testimony of the earliest Christian writers, a coherent historical picture emerges: the early Church believed that Jesus entrusted a unique foundational role to Peter. This role was never understood in isolation from Christ, nor divorced from the broader apostolic mission. But Peter—Kepha—was remembered as the stone upon which Christ began building a visible, structured, and unified Church.
References
Carson, D.A. Expositor’s Bible Commentary, Vol. 8: Matthew–Mark. Zondervan, 2010, p. 368.
France, R.T. The Gospel of Matthew. NICNT. Eerdmans, 2007, p. 622.
Pitre, Brant. Jesus and the Jewish Roots of the Papacy. Image Books, 2015, pp. 45–48.
Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3.3.2, in Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 1.
Tertullian, On Modesty 21, in Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 4.
Origen, Commentary on Matthew 12.10, in Patrologia Graeca 13:1013.
Cyprian, On the Unity of the Church 4, in Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 5.
Cullmann, Oscar. Peter: Disciple, Apostle, Martyr. Westminster Press, 1962, p. 207.
Brown, Raymond E. The Gospel According to Matthew. Doubleday, 1990, p. 195.
Keener, Craig S. The Gospel of Matthew: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary. Eerdmans, 2009, p. 426.
Bible Verses:
John 1:42
“And he brought him to Jesus. Jesus looked at him and said, ‘You are Simon son of John. You will be called Cephas’ (which, when translated, is Peter).”
1 Corinthians 1:12
“What I mean is that each one of you says, ‘I follow Paul,’ or ‘I follow Apollos,’ or ‘I follow Cephas,’ or ‘I follow Christ.'”
1 Corinthians 3:22
“whether Paul or Apollos or Cephas or the world or life or death or the present or the future—all are yours.”
Galatians 1:18
“Then after three years, I went up to Jerusalem to get acquainted with Cephas and stayed with him fifteen days.”
Galatians 2:9
“James, Cephas and John, those esteemed as pillars, gave me and Barnabas the right hand of fellowship when they recognized the grace given to me. They agreed that we should go to the Gentiles, and they to the circumcised.”
Church Father Quotes:
Clement of Rome (martyred 96 A.D.)
“Be it known to you, my lord, that Simon [Peter], who, for the sake of the true faith, and the most sure foundation of his doctrine, was set apart to be the foundation of the Church, and for this end was by Jesus himself, with his truthful mouth, named Peter, the first fruits of our Lord, the first of the apostles; to whom first the Father revealed the Son; whom the Christ, with good reason, blessed” (Letter of Clement to James 2 [A.D. 221]).
Tertullian of Carthage (155-240 A.D.)
“[T]he Lord said to Peter, ‘On this rock I will build my Church, I have given you the keys of the kingdom of heaven [and] whatever you shall have bound or loosed on earth will be bound or loosed in heaven’ [Matt. 16:18–19]. . . . Upon you, he says, I will build my Church; and I will give to you the keys, not to the Church” (Modesty 21:9–10 [A.D. 220]).
Origen of Alexandria (184-253 A.D.)
“Look at Peter, the great foundation of the Church, that most solid of rocks, upon whom Christ built the Church [Matt. 16:18]. And what does our Lord say to him? ‘Oh you of little faith,’ he says, ‘why do you doubt?’ [Matt. 14:31]” –Homilies on Exodus 5:4 (Written 248 A.D.)
“Peter, upon whom is built the Church of Christ, against which the gates of hell shall not prevail, left only one Epistle of acknowledged genuinity. Let us concede also a second, which, however, is doubtful.” –Commentaries on John (Written 244 A.D.) [cited by Eusebius in History of the Church 6:25]
Cyprian of Carthage (200-258 A.D.)
“The Lord says to Peter: ‘I say to you,’ he says, ‘that you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church.’ . . . On him [Peter] he builds the Church, and to him he gives the command to feed the sheep [John 21:17], and although he assigns a like power to all the apostles, yet he founded a single chair [cathedra], and he established by his own authority a source and an intrinsic reason for that unity. Indeed, the others were that also which Peter was [i.e., apostles], but a primacy is given to Peter, whereby it is made clear that there is but one Church and one chair. So too, all [the apostles] are shepherds, and the flock is shown to be one, fed by all the apostles in single-minded accord. If someone does not hold fast to this unity of Peter, can he imagine that he still holds the faith? If he [should] desert the chair of Peter upon whom the Church was built, can he still be confident that he is in the Church?” (The Unity of the Catholic Church 4; 1st edition [A.D. 251]).
Firmilian of Caesarea (Died 269 A.D.)
“But what his error is… who says that the remission of sins can be given in the synagogues of heretics, who do not remain on the foundation of the one Church founded upon the Rock by Christ…. can be learned from this, which Christ said to Peter alone:
‘Whatever things you shall bind on earth shall be bound also in heaven; and whatever you loose on earth, they shall be loosed in heaven’ and… “if you forgive the sins of any, they shall be forgiven; and if you retain the sins of any, they shall be retained.’ Therefore, the power of forgiving sins was given to the Apostles and the Churches they founded and the Bishops who succeeded them.” – Letter to Cyprian (Written in 255 A.D.)
Ephraim the Syrian (306-373 A.D.)
“[Jesus said:] Simon, my follower, I have made you the foundation of the holy Church. I betimes called you Peter, because you will support all its buildings. You are the inspector of those who will build on Earth a Church for me. If they should wish to build what is false, you, the foundation, will condemn them. You are the head of the fountain from which my teaching flows; you are the chief of my disciples. Through you I will give drink to all peoples. Yours is that life-giving sweetness which I dispense. I have chosen you to be, as it were, the firstborn in my institution so that, as the heir, you may be executor of my treasures. I have given you the keys of my kingdom. Behold, I have given you authority over all my treasures” (Homilies 4:1 [A.D. 351]).
Pope Damasus I (305-384 A.D.)
“Likewise it is decreed . . . that it ought to be announced that . . . the holy Roman Church has been placed at the forefront not by the conciliar decisions of other churches, but has received the primacy by the evangelic voice of our Lord and Savior, who says: ‘You are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church, and the gates of hell will not prevail against it; and I will give to you the keys of the kingdom of heaven . . . ’ [Matt. 16:18–19]. The first see, therefore, is that of Peter the apostle, that of the Roman Church, which has neither stain nor blemish nor anything like it” (Decree of Damasus 3 [A.D. 382]).
Optatus of Milevis (320-385 A.D.)
“In the city of Rome the episcopal chair was given first to Peter; the chair in which Peter sat, the same who was head—that is why he is also called Cephas [‘Rock’]—of all the apostles, the one chair in which unity is maintained by all. Neither do the apostles proceed individually on their own, and anyone who would [presume to] set up another chair in opposition to that single chair would, by that very fact, be a schismatic and a sinner. . .” -Against the Donatists 2:2 (Written 367 A.D.)
Ambrose of Milan (340-397 A.D.)
“[Christ] made answer: ‘You are Peter, and upon this rock will I build my Church. . . . ’ Could he not, then, strengthen the faith of the man to whom, acting on his own authority, he gave the kingdom, whom he called the rock, thereby declaring him to be the foundation of the Church [Matt. 16:18]?” –The Faith 4:5 [A.D. 379]
“It is to Peter that he says: ‘You are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church’ [Matt. 16:18]. Where Peter is, there is the Church. And where the Church is, no death is there, but life eternal.” –Commentary on Twelve Psalms of David 40:30 [A.D. 389]
Jerome of Stridon (347-420 A.D.)
“‘But,’ you [Jovinian] will say, ‘it was on Peter that the Church was founded’ [Matt. 16:18]. Well . . . one among the twelve is chosen to be their head in order to remove any occasion for division” (Against Jovinian 1:26 [A.D. 393]).
“Philip, the presbyter and legate of the Apostolic See [Rome] said: ‘There is no doubt, and in fact it has been known in all ages, that the holy and most blessed Peter, prince and head of the apostles, pillar of the faith, and foundation of the Catholic Church, received the keys of the kingdom from our Lord Jesus Christ, the Savior and Redeemer of the human race, and that to him was given the power of loosing and binding sins: who down even to today and forever both lives and judges in his successors’” (Acts of the Council, session 3).
Pope Leo I “the Great” (400-461 A.D.)
“Our Lord Jesus Christ . . . has placed the principal charge on the blessed Peter, chief of all the apostles, and from him as from the head wishes his gifts to flow to all the body, so that anyone who dares to secede from Peter’s solid rock may understand that he has no part or lot in the divine mystery. He wished him who had been received into partnership in his undivided unity to be named what he himself was, when he said: ‘You are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church’ [Matt. 16:18], that the building of the eternal temple might rest on Peter’s solid rock, strengthening his Church so surely that neither could human rashness assail it nor the gates of hell prevail against it” (Letters 10:1 [A.D. 445).
“Our Lord Jesus Christ . . . established the worship belonging to the divine [Christian] religion. . . . But the Lord desired that the sacrament of this gift should pertain to all the apostles in such a way that it might be found principally in the most blessed Peter, the highest of all the apostles. And he wanted his gifts to flow into the entire body from Peter himself, as if from the head, in such a way that anyone who had dared to separate himself from the solidarity of Peter would realize that he was himself no longer a sharer in the divine mystery” (ibid., 10:2–3).
Theodore Abū Qurrah (750-825 A.D.)
“You should understand that the head of the Apostles was Saint Peter, to whom Christ said, ‘You are the rock; and on this rock I shall build my church, and the gates of hell will not overcome it.’ After his resurrection, he also said to him three times, while on the shore of the sea of Tiberius, ‘Simon, do you love me? Feed my lambs, rams and ewes.’ In another passage, he said to him, ‘Simon, Satan will ask to sift you like wheat, and I prayed that you not lose your faith; but you, at that time, have compassion on your brethren and strengthen them.’ Do you not see that Saint Peter is the foundation of the Church, selected to shepherd it, that those who believe in his faith will never lose their faith, and that he was ordered to have compassion on his brethren and to strengthen them?” -On the Councils by Theodore Abu Qurrah, Bishop of Haran, Syria. John C. Lamoreaux, translator. (Provo: Brigham Young University Press, 2005), pp. 68-69; 128.
“As for us, through the grace of the Holy Spirit, our sole goal is to build ourselves on the foundation of Saint Peter, he who directed the six holy councils. These councils were gathered by command of the Bishop of Rome, the city of the world. Whoever sits on that city’s throne is authorized by Christ to have compassion on the people of the Church, by summoning the ecumenical council, and to strengthen them, even as we have demonstrated in other places. We ask Christ to confirm us in this forever, that we might inherit through it his kingdom, in that we have joined with it the doing of his commandments. To him be praise, along with the Father and the Holy Spirit, forever and forever.” -On the Death of Christ by Theodore Abu Qurrah. John C. Lamoreaux, translator. (Provo: Brigham Young University Press, 2005), pp. 68-69; 128
Non-Catholic Quotes:
Albert Barnes, Nineteenth-Century Presbyterian
“The meaning of this phrase may be thus expressed: ‘Thou, in saying that I am the Son of God, hast called me by a name expressive of my true character. I, also, have given to thee a name expressive of your character. I have called you Peter, a rock. . . . I see that you are worthy of the name and will be a distinguished support of my religion” [Barnes’ Notes on the New Testament, 170].
John Broadus, Nineteenth-Century Calvinistic Baptist
“As Peter means rock, the natural interpretation is that ‘upon this rock’ means upon thee. . . . It is an even more far-fetched and harsh play upon words if we understand the rock to be Christ and a very feeble and almost unmeaning play upon words if the rock is Peter’s confession” [Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, 356].
Craig L. Blomberg, Contemporary Baptist
“The expression ‘this rock’ almost certainly refers to Peter, following immediately after his name, just as the words following ‘the Christ’ in verse 16 applied to Jesus. The play on words in the Greek between Peter’s name (Petros) and the word ‘rock’ (petra) makes sense only if Peter is the Rock and if Jesus is about to explain the significance of this identification” [New American Commentary: Matthew, 22:252].
J. Knox Chamblin, Contemporary Presbyterian
“By the words ‘this rock’ Jesus means not himself, nor his teaching, nor God the Father, nor Peter’s confession, but Peter himself. The phrase is immediately preceded by a direct and emphatic reference to Peter. As Jesus identifies himself as the builder, the rock on which he builds is most naturally understood as someone (or something) other than Jesus himself” [“Matthew” in Evangelical Commentary on the Bible, 742].
R. T. France, Contemporary Anglican
“The word-play, and the whole structure of the passage, demands that this verse is every bit as much Jesus’ declaration about Peter as verse 16 was Peter’s declaration about Jesus. Of course it is on the basis of Peter’s confession that Jesus declares his role as the Church’s foundation, but it is to Peter, not his confession, that the rock metaphor is applied” (Gospel According to Matthew, 254).
Herman Ridderbos, Contemporary Dutch Reformed
“It is well known that the Greek word petra translated ‘rock’ here is different from the proper name Peter. The slight difference between them has no special importance, however. The most likely explanation for the change from petros (‘Peter’) to petra is that petra was the normal word for ‘rock.’ . . . There is no good reason to think that Jesus switched from petros to petra to show that he was not speaking of the man Peter but of his confession as the foundation of the Church. The words ‘on this rock [petra]’ indeed refer to Peter” [Bible Student’s Commentary: Matthew, 303].
Donald Hagner, Contemporary Evangelical
“The frequent attempts that have been made, largely in the past, to deny [that Peter is the rock] in favor of the view that the confession itself is the rock . . . seem to be largely motivated by Protestant prejudice against a passage that is used by the Roman Catholics to justify the papacy” (Word Biblical Commentary 33b:470).