Constans II Persecution

The persecution of Catholics by Emperor Constans II of the Byzantine Empire began in the mid-7th century, around 648 AD. Constans II enforced the Typos decree, which forbade discussion on the nature of Christ, specifically the theological dispute between the Monophysites and Chalcedonian Christians. The decree was aimed at silencing debate over Monothelitism, a doctrine supported by Constans II, which taught that Christ had a single divine will, as opposed to the Chalcedonian position that Christ had both a divine and human will. Constans sought to maintain religious unity in the empire by imposing Monothelitism, which was seen as a compromise with the Monophysite Christians (who believed in the single divine nature of Christ). The Typos decree was an attempt to quell the debate by forbidding discussions about Christ’s will altogether.

The persecution primarily targeted Catholic bishops and other leaders who rejected Monothelitism and upheld the decisions of the Council of Chalcedon (451 AD). Pope Martin I and Maximus the Confessor were among the most notable figures who suffered under Constans II’s rule.

Pope Martin I became pope during a time when the Monothelite controversy was at its height. In 649, shortly after his election, Martin convened the Lateran Synod, which condemned both the doctrine of Monothelitism and Emperor Constans II’s Typos decree. In response, the emperor had him arrested in 653 AD. He was condemned for treason and exiled to Cherson (in Crimea). Martin endured extreme hardship and died in exile in 655, making him one of the last popes to be recognized as a martyr.

Maximus the Confessor was a monk and theologian who became one of the most influential opponents of Monothelitism. Maximus was outspoken in his rejection of both the Ekthesis (issued by Emperor Heraclius) and the Typos decree of Constans II, which attempted to silence debate on the issue. Maximus was arrested and tried multiple times, ultimately being tortured by having his tongue cut out and his right hand amputated, the parts of his body that he had used to spread his theology. He was then exiled and died in 662 AD.

The persecution effectively ended with Constans II’s death in 668 AD. His successor, Constantine IV, took a more conciliatory approach, which led to the eventual repudiation of Monothelitism at the Third Council of Constantinople in 680-681 AD. This council affirmed the Chalcedonian position and ended the theological conflict over Monothelitism within the Byzantine Empire. While the council healed the immediate theological rift, the broader political and cultural differences between the Eastern and Western churches continued to grow. Over time, these tensions contributed to the eventual East-West Schism in 1054, though the Monothelite controversy was not a direct cause of that later divide.

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