Schism & Division within the Church

Schism in the Early Church

The unity of the Church has been a central concern since its founding. Jesus Christ’s prayer that His followers “may all be one” (John 17:21) underscores the divine will for a visible, spiritual, and doctrinal unity among believers. Yet from the first century, the Church has faced threats not only from heresy—errors in doctrine—but also from schism, which involves a rupture in ecclesiastical communion and submission to legitimate authority. 

The word schism comes from the Greek schisma (σχίσμα), meaning “split,” “division,” or “tear.” In Christian theology, it refers specifically to a deliberate separation from the unity of the Church, often due to refusal to submit to the pope or legitimate ecclesiastical authorities, even if doctrinal beliefs remain orthodox.⁽¹⁾

In contrast, heresy (from Greek hairesis, αἵρεσις) means “choice” or “sect,” and in Christian usage refers to the rejection or distortion of essential teachings of the faith as handed down by the apostles.⁽²⁾ While heresy attacks the integrity of Christian doctrine, schism attacks the integrity of Christian communion.  The two are often interconnected. A schism can lead to doctrinal deviation over time, and many heresies also result in schism, but the essential distinction lies in their object: heresy denies doctrine; schism breaks communion.

Biblical Foundation for Unity and the Danger of Schism

The New Testament consistently teaches that unity among believers is not optional but essential to the Church’s identity. Christ prayed for a visible, lived unity:

“That they may all be one… so that the world may believe that you have sent me” (John 17:21).

St. Paul repeatedly admonished early Christians to avoid division:

• “I appeal to you… that there be no divisions (schismata) among you” (1 Cor. 1:10).

• “Has Christ been divided?” (1 Cor. 1:13).

• “Mark those who cause divisions and offenses contrary to the doctrine you have learned, and avoid them” (Rom. 16:17).

These passages illustrate that schism—division within the body of Christ—is a serious violation of God’s will. Christ’s command in Matthew 18:17–18 about listening to “the Church” further affirms the need for obedience to ecclesial authority:

“If he refuses to listen even to the church, let him be to you as a Gentile and a tax collector… Whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven.”

In short, the New Testament identifies visible ecclesial unity and submission to Church authority as core elements of authentic Christianity.

Early Schisms in the Church

1. The Judaizing Controversy (1st Century)

The first ecclesial rupture emerged over the question of Gentile inclusion. Some Jewish Christians (the Judaizers) demanded that Gentile converts observe the Mosaic Law, including circumcision. The Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15) settled the matter by affirming that Gentile believers were not bound by the Law. Those who persisted in this requirement acted against the authority of the apostles and created what could be seen as the first schism—ultimately rejected by Paul in Galatians 2:14.

2. The Novatian Schism (3rd Century)

During the Decian persecution, some Christians lapsed under threat. The Church, under Pope Cornelius, welcomed their return after penance. Novatian, a Roman presbyter, objected and had himself consecrated as an alternative bishop of Rome, creating a schismatic community. Although Novatian upheld orthodox doctrine, his refusal to submit to Church authority and pastoral judgment marked his group as schismatic.⁽⁴⁾

3. The Donatist Schism (4th–5th Century)

In North Africa, the Donatists rejected the legitimacy of clergy who had lapsed under persecution, asserting that the validity of sacraments depended on the moral purity of the minister. The Catholic Church, with St. Augustine as its principal theologian, refuted this view, teaching that the sacraments derive their efficacy from Christ, not the minister’s worthiness.⁽⁵⁾ Though the Donatists held much orthodox doctrine, their rejection of Catholic bishops and their claim to exclusive legitimacy constituted a serious and enduring schism.

4. The Assyrian Church of the East (5th Century)

The Council of Ephesus (431) condemned Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, for denying the unity of Christ’s person and refusing to affirm Mary as Theotokos (“God-bearer”). Nestorian communities, particularly in the Persian Empire, rejected the council and eventually developed into what became known as the Assyrian Church of the East.⁽⁶⁾ While the Church of the East developed its own theological expressions, including a stronger emphasis on the distinction of Christ’s two natures, its schism was rooted in Christological misunderstandings and a rejection of conciliar authority.

5. The Oriental Orthodox Churches (5th Century)

Following the Council of Chalcedon (451), which affirmed that Christ is one person with two natures—divine and human—the Coptic, Armenian, Syrian, and Ethiopian Churches rejected the council’s definition. They feared it implied a Nestorian division in Christ and adhered instead to miaphysitism, the belief that Christ has one united nature. These churches formed what are now called the Oriental Orthodox Churches.⁽⁷⁾ Though later dialogue revealed much of the division was due to terminological misunderstandings rather than outright heresy, the schism occurred primarily due to disagreement with the council’s authority and Christological formula.

The Role of the First Seven Ecumenical Councils

The early ecumenical councils were convened not only to condemn heresy but to preserve unity and communion within the Church:

1. Nicaea I (325) – Condemned Arianism; affirmed Christ as consubstantial with the Father.

2. Constantinople I (381) – Clarified the divinity of the Holy Spirit and refined the Nicene Creed.

3. Ephesus (431) – Condemned Nestorius; affirmed the unity of Christ’s person and Mary as Theotokos.

4. Chalcedon (451) – Affirmed Christ as one person in two natures; rejected both Nestorian and Monophysite extremes.

5. Constantinople II (553) – Addressed lingering Nestorian influences; reaffirmed Chalcedonian orthodoxy.

6. Constantinople III (680–681) – Condemned Monothelitism; declared Christ had both a divine and human will.

7. Nicaea II (787) – Restored the veneration of icons after the Iconoclast controversy.⁽⁸⁾

These councils established authoritative teaching, and those who rejected them—often for political or cultural reasons—fell into schism, even if some continued to uphold aspects of orthodoxy.

The Great Schism of 1054

The most significant schism in Church history occurred between the Latin West and the Greek East. Though typically dated to 1054, the East–West Schism had developed over centuries. Key factors included:

• Papal primacy: The Roman Church claimed universal jurisdiction; Constantinople and the East saw the pope as primus inter pares (“first among equals”).

• The Filioque clause: The Western Church added “and the Son” (Filioque) to the Nicene Creed without an ecumenical council, which the East rejected as both procedurally and theologically problematic.

• Cultural, political, and linguistic divides: Tensions between the Byzantine Empire and Latin Christendom exacerbated mistrust.

In 1054, Cardinal Humbert, representing Pope Leo IX, excommunicated Patriarch Michael Cerularius, who responded in kind. While the mutual excommunications were lifted in 1965, the theological, liturgical, and jurisdictional divisions between the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches remain.⁽⁹⁾ The Great Schism, while rooted in ecclesial disagreements, was formally a schism, not a doctrinal heresy.

Conclusion

From the apostolic age to the Great Schism of 1054, the Christian Church has grappled with both heresy and schism. While heresy undermines the content of the faith, schism undermines its communion. The early Church’s approach to schism—through councils, theological clarification, and insistence on apostolic authority—reflected the conviction that unity in truth and communion with rightful authority are essential marks of the Church. Christ’s high priestly prayer in John 17 remains a call for visible, enduring unity: “that they may all be one… so that the world may believe.”

Footnotes

1. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologiae II-II, q.39, a.1.

2. Titus 3:10; Galatians 1:8–9.

3. Catechism of the Catholic Church, §2089.

4. Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, VI; Cyprian of Carthage, De Unitate Ecclesiae.

5. Augustine, Contra epistolam Parmeniani; De baptismo contra Donatistas.

6. John Meyendorff, Imperial Unity and Christian Divisions: The Church 450–680 A.D. (St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1989), pp. 121–134.

7. John McGuckin, The Orthodox Church: An Introduction to Its History, Doctrine, and Spiritual Culture (Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), pp. 102–107.

8. Norman Tanner, Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils, Vol. 1 (Georgetown University Press, 1990).

9. Steven Runciman, The Eastern Schism (Oxford University Press, 1955); Joseph Gill, The Council of Florence (Cambridge University Press, 1959).

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